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<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<meta charset="utf-8" />
</head>
<body>
<h1>Nationally Determined Contribution of Angola</h1>
<p><strong>May 2021</strong></p>
<h2 id="acknowledges">ACKNOWLEDGES </h2>
<p>The Government of Angola recognizes the country's vulnerability to climate change and is aware of the impacts that the country has been suffering, and the tendency for them to become worse. In this context, Angola wants to be part of the solution, showing its commitment for emissions reduction and adaptation efforts.</p>
<p>The document presented here resulted from the interaction with the different ministerial departments and several Angolan entities, which responded to the challenge launched by the National Directorate of Environment and Climate Action (DNAAC) and participated in bilateral meetings to discuss this NDC, showing a great sense of responsibility and commitment.</p>
<p>This document represents an important step for Angola in its commitment to the Paris Agreement.</p>
<p>A very special thanks to the President of the Republic, His Excellency João Manuel Gonçalves Lourenço, for the strategic orientation to the environment and climate change sector, without which it would not have been possible to develop this document.</p>
<p>The Government of Angola appreciates the exceptional availability and commitment of all those identified below and who contributed to the update of this NDC.</p>
<p>Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Environment (MCTA)</p>
<p>National Directorate of Culture and Arts</p>
<p>National Directorate of Traditional Power</p>
<p>Communities and Institutions</p>
<p>National Directorate of Structuring and Tourism Development</p>
<p>National Directorate for Qualification of</p>
<p>Infrastructure and Tourism Products</p>
<p>National Directorate for the Environment and Climate Action</p>
<p>National Directorate for Prevention and Assessment of Environmental Impacts</p>
<p>Ministry of Economy and Planning (MEP)</p>
<p>National Directorate of Studies and Planning</p>
<p>National Directorate for Economy, Competitiveness and Innovation</p>
<p>Population Policy Office</p>
<p>Cabinet for Public-Private Partnerships</p>
<p>National Institute of Statistics</p>
<p>Ministry of Energy and Water (MINEA)</p>
<p>National Directorate of Electric Energy</p>
<p>National Directorate of Rural and Local Electrification</p>
<p>National Directorate for Renewable Energies</p>
<p>National Directorate of Water</p>
<p>National Institute of Water Resources</p>
<p>Office for the Administration of the Cunene, Kubango and Cuvelai River Basins (GABHIC)</p>
<p>Regulatory Institute for the Electricity and Water Sector</p>
<p>Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (MINAGRIP)</p>
<p>National Directorate of Agriculture and Livestock</p>
<p>Department of Food Security</p>
<p>National Directorate of Forests</p>
<p>Agrarian Land Management Office</p>
<p>Agrarian Development Institute</p>
<p>Forest Development Institute</p>
<p>National Fisheries Research Institute</p>
<p>Institute for the Development of Artisanal Fisheries and Aquaculture</p>
<p>Ministry of Industry and Commerce (MINDCOM)</p>
<p>Industrial Licensing Office</p>
<p>National Directorate of Industry</p>
<p>Monitoring Department, Environment Promotion and Safety in Industry</p>
<p>Industrial Development Institute of Angola</p>
<p>Angolan Institute for Standardization and Quality</p>
<p>National Directorate of Foreign Trade</p>
<p>Ministry of Mineral Resources, Oil and Gas (MIREMPET)</p>
<p>National Directorate of Security, Emergencies and Environment.</p>
<p>Department of Environmental Protection</p>
<p>Ministry of Transports (MINTRANS)</p>
<p>National Institute of Road Transport</p>
<p>Angola Maritime and Port Institute</p>
<p>National Institute of Civil Aviation</p>
<p>National Institute of Railways of Angola</p>
<p>Institute of Hydrography and Maritime Signaling of Angola</p>
<p>National Council of Porters</p>
<p>Ministry of Telecommunications, Information</p>
<p>Technologies and Social Communication (MINTTICS)</p>
<p>National Directorate of the Information and</p>
<p>Meteorological Society</p>
<p>Angolan Communications Institute</p>
<p>National Centre for Information Technologies</p>
<p>National Institute of Meteorology and Geophysics</p>
<p>Telecommunications Institute</p>
<p>Ministry of Interior (MININT)</p>
<p>National Civil Protection and Fire Service</p>
<p>Office of the Secretary of State for Civil Protection (Office of the Secretary of State for the Interior)</p>
<p>Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MIREX)</p>
<p>Directorate for Multilateral Affairs</p>
<p>Directorate for Legal Affairs, Treaties and Litigation</p>
<p>Office of the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs</p>
<p>Office of the Secretary of State for Cooperation SADC Office</p>
<p>Minister of Public Works and Territory Planning (MINOPOT)</p>
<p>National Directorate for Spatial Planning</p>
<p>National Directorate of Urban Infrastructure</p>
<p>National Directorate of Housing</p>
<p>National Institute for Spatial Planning and Urban Development</p>
<p>Geographical and Cadastral Institute of Angola</p>
<p>National Institute of Public Works and Construction</p>
<p>Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Technology and Innovation (MESCTI)</p>
<p>National Directorate of Graduated Training</p>
<p>National Directorate of Advanced Training and Scientific Research</p>
<p>National Directorate for Access, Vocational Guidance and Student Support</p>
<p>National Directorate for Management and Training of</p>
<p>Higher Education Staff</p>
<p>Ministry of Finance (MINFIN)</p>
<p>International Studies and Relations Office</p>
<p>National Directorate of State Budget</p>
<p>National Directorate of Public Investments</p>
<p>Ministry of Health (MINSA)</p>
<p>National Directorate of Public Health</p>
<p>National Institute for Health Research</p>
<p>National Institute of Medical Emergencies of Angola</p>
<p>Center for Disease Prevention and Control</p>
<p>Health Research Center of Angola</p>
<p>Ministry of Education (MED)</p>
<p>National Institute for Education Research and Development – INIDE</p>
<p>United Nations Agencies</p>
<p>United Nations Development Program (UNDP)</p>
<h2 id="acronyms-and-abbreviations">ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS </h2>
<table>
<thead>
<tr class="header">
<th>AFOLU</th>
<th>Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="odd">
<td>BAU</td>
<td>Business-as-Usual</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>CO<sub>2</sub></td>
<td>Carbon dioxide</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>CO<sub>2</sub>e</td>
<td>Carbon dioxide equivalent</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>COP</td>
<td>Conference of Parties</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>ENAC</td>
<td>National Strategy for Climate Change 2020-2035 (acronym in Portuguese)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>GACMO</td>
<td>Greenhouse Gas Abatement Cost Model</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>GEF</td>
<td>Global Investment Facility</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>GDP</td>
<td>Gross Domestic Product</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>GHG</td>
<td>Greenhouse gas</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>GWP</td>
<td>Global warming potential</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>INC</td>
<td>Initial National Communication</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>iNDC</td>
<td>Intended Nationally Determined Contribution</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>IPCC</td>
<td>Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>LDCF</td>
<td>Least Developed Countries Fund</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>LULUCF</td>
<td>Land use, land use change and forestry</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>MCTA</td>
<td>Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Environment (acronym in Portuguese)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>MINEA</td>
<td>Ministry of Energy and Water (acronym in Portuguese)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>MPLA</td>
<td>Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (acronym in Portuguese)</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>MRV</td>
<td>Monitoring, Reporting and Verification</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>MW</td>
<td>Megawatts</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>NAPA</td>
<td>National Adaptation Programme of Action</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>NDC</td>
<td>Nationally Determined Contribution</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>PA</td>
<td>Paris Agreement</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>SDG</td>
<td>Sustainable Development Goals</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>t</td>
<td>Tonne</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>UNDP</td>
<td>United Nations Development Programme</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>UNFCCC</td>
<td>United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>USD</td>
<td>United States (US) dollar</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h2 id="executive-summary">EXECUTIVE SUMMARY </h2>
<p>Facing climate change is the greatest global environmental challenge in the present. Developing countries are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change because they are highly dependent on natural resources and have limited capacity to respond to these impacts.</p>
<p>At the 21<sup>st</sup> Conference of the Parties (COP21) in 2015, the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) adopted the Paris Agreement [45]. This is a historic agreement, the first global legal framework binding the responsibilities of all Parties in joint efforts to combat climate change. The implementation of each Party's responsibilities for climate change response is primarily reflected through the Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC), that Angola submitted in the same year as Paris Agreement was adopted (2015). In August 2020 the Paris Agreement and Doha Amendment Ratification were formally approved by the Government of Angola. In November 2020, Angola ratified the Paris Agreement to UNFCCC.</p>
<p>In accordance with Decision 1/CP.21 of COP21, Parties were requested to communicate or update the NDC by 2020, Angola reviewed and updated its NDC to be submitted to the UNFCCC Secretariat in 2020 based on the actual country context.</p>
<p>Angola is committed to take part in the aspiration set at International level to fight against climate change, thus contributing to global efforts to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. For this, Angola’s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) encompasses for Mitigation and Adaptation purposes both unconditional and conditional measures for the reduction of GHG emissions and adaptation of its territory and population to the adverse impacts of climate change.</p>
<p>An “unconditional contribution” is what Angola could implement without any conditions and based on their own resources and capabilities. A “conditional contribution” is one that Angola would undertake if international means of support are provided, or other conditions are met.</p>
<p>The Business-As-Usual (BAU) scenario considered for this NDC was developed using 2015 as the base year and provides projections for up to 2025. Angola plans to reduce GHG emissions up to 14% by 2025 as compared to the base year (unconditionally). The baseline corresponds to the most recent National GHG Inventory (2015), and accounts for 99.99 million tonnes of CO<sub>2</sub>e. The emissions under the BAU scenario are estimated to be 103.9 million tonnes of CO<sub>2</sub>e in 2020 and 108.5 million tonnes of CO<sub>2</sub>e in 2025.</p>
<p>The mitigation component identifies measures for the period 2020-2025 in the following sectors: Energy (including Transport); Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use; Industry; Waste. The adaptation component identifies measures for the period 2020-2025 in the following sectors: Agriculture and Fisheries; Coastal Zone Forests, Ecosystems and Biodiversity; Water Resources; Human Health; Infrastructures.</p>
<p>The adaptation component identifies strategic measures in key sectors in order to improve adaptive capacity, enhance resilience, and reduce risks caused by climate change, thus contributes to the achievement of the country’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and National Development Plan objectives.</p>
<p>The 2020 NDC reflects the feedback from stakeholders and is fully aligned with the development vision of the government. Angola adopted an all-inclusive process of engaging relevant stakeholders through bilateral consultations.</p>
<p>In reviewing the 2015 Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (iNDC), the government organized bilateral meetings, conducted during 2020-2021, in order to identify and discuss relevant measures to achieve the proposed target, responding to the main priorities of the country.</p>
<p>Due to the global pandemic COVID-19 the bilateral meetings were developed through virtual platform.</p>
<h2 id="introduction">1. INTRODUCTION </h2>
<h2 id="overview"> 1.1. Overview </h2>
<p>At the 21<sup>st</sup> Conference of the Parties (COP21) in Paris, on 12 December 2015, Parties to the United Nations Framework on Climate Change (UNFCCC) reached a landmark agreement to combat climate change and to accelerate and intensify the actions and investments needed for a sustainable low carbon future [45]. The Paris Agreement guides developed and developing countries to made individual commitments to transition toward a climate-resilient and lowemissions future.</p>
<p>Parties are required to undertake and communicate efforts to contribute to the achievement of these goals in the form of Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) communicated to the UNFCCC (Article 3). All Parties agreed to either communicate their current NDCs or submit new or updated NDCs by 2020, and to do so every five years thereafter. Each successive NDC is expected to represent a progression beyond the current NDC (Article 4) and reflect the Party’s highest possible ambition. This upward spiral of ambition underpins the achievement of the goals agreed to in Paris.</p>
<p>The first Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (iNDC) of Angola was submitted to the</p>
<p>UNFCCC in 2015. Five years later and following the ratification of the Paris Agreement in November 2020, Angola is submitting an updated NDC, setting targets to contribute to the achievement of the PA goals and meet the country compromises in climate change policy.</p>
<h2 id="outline-of-this-document"> 1.2. Outline of this document </h2>
<p>This document describes Angola’s update of its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution for mitigation and adaptation for the period 2020-2025.</p>
<p>It is structured as follows:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Section 2 describes Angola’s national circumstances</p></li>
<li><p>Section 3 presents the NDC Revision Process</p></li>
<li><p>Section 4 describes Angola’s contribution to Mitigation</p></li>
<li><p>Section 5 describes Angola’s contribution to Adaptation</p></li>
<li><p>Section 6 outlines the means of implementation for the mitigation and adaptation measures contained in the NDC and identifies the barriers to the implementation</p></li>
<li><p>Section 7 describes the fairness and ambition of the present NDC</p></li>
<li><p>Section 8 describes Information to facilitate clarity, transparency and understanding</p></li>
<li><p>Section 9 contains the references</p></li>
</ul>
<p>As an annex to this document, a list of indicators for tracking NDC implementation is presented.</p>
<h2 id="current-national-context">2. CURRENT NATIONAL CONTEXT </h2>
<p>Angolan vision for Climate Change</p>
<p><em>“Angola adapted to the impacts of climate change with a low carbon development pathway that contributes to the eradication of poverty.” (ENAC 2020-2035) </em></p>
<h2 id="introduction-1"> 2.1. Introduction </h2>
<p>The Republic of Angola is vulnerable to the impacts of Climate Change and some territories are already experiencing frequent episodes of extreme weather events of concern such as droughts or floods, as well as coastal degradation.</p>
<p>Concerned with making its contribution to the protection of communities and the rational management of its most varied natural resources, counting on future generations, the Republic of Angola has, in recent decades, become a signatory to several international environmental conventions with the signature of their respective protocols.</p>
<p>Angola ratified the United Nations Climate Change Convention (UNFCCC) in 2000 and the Kyoto Protocol in 2007, reaffirming its commitment to the implementation of measures and programs to stabilize greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In May 2000, the country ratified the Montreal Protocol to the Vienna Convention, after being signed by the Parties in July 1998, being one of the most successful United Nations treaties to date with 197 signatory countries.</p>
<p>Angola is also a signatory to the United Nations Convention on Combating Drought and Desertification (UNCCD), the Convention on the Conservation of Wild Migratory Species (CMS), better known as the “Bonn Convention”, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). Angola is also part of the Law of the Sea Convention.</p>
<p>Most of the conventions continue to deserve their implementation by Angola, through the Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Environment (MCTA), within the scope of the commitments assumed at international level to contribute to the protection of the planet earth and its living beings.</p>
<p>In 2011, Angola completed its National Adaptation Action Plan (PANA) and in 2014 submitted its 1<sup>st</sup> National Communication to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change.</p>
<p>In 2015, the country prepared and submitted its Intended National Contribution for the reduction of GHG emissions to the UNFCCC.</p>
<p>Angola recognizes that the country has been greatly affected by the impacts of climate change (prolonged droughts, floods, forest fires, reduced agricultural productivity, reduced water availability, affected fishing resources, ...) and that adaptation is an obvious need. To address these issues, Angola has developed several national plans and strategies, including the National Strategy for Afforestation and Reforestation (2010), Strategic Plan for Disaster Risk Management (2011) and Program of Action National Plan to Combat Desertification (2014). In 2017, the Angolan Ministerial Department responsible for the Environment prepared its National Strategy for Mitigation and Adaptation to Climate Change 2020-2035, being revised at the moment, which identifies and defines a set of strategic mitigation and adaptation options for different economic sectors.</p>
<p>The Republic of Angola is committed to the full, effective, and transparent implementation of the Paris Agreement in accordance with its provisions and the relevant Decisions of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP) and the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement.</p>
<h2 id="geographical-characteristics"> 2.2. Geographical Characteristics </h2>
<p>Angola, officially the Republic of Angola, is a country located on the south west coast of Africa, whose main territory is limited to the north and northeast by the Democratic Republic of Congo, to the east by Zambia, to the south by Namibia and to the west by the Atlantic Ocean. It also includes the exclave of Cabinda, through which it borders the Republic of Congo to the north. Angola has a surface area of 1.246.700 square kilometers and a coastline of 1.650 square kilometers.</p>
<p>Angola is divided into 18 provinces (Bengo, Benguela, Bié, Cabinda, Cuando Cubango, CuanzaNorte, Cuanza-Sul, Cunene, Huambo, Huila, Luanda, Lunda-Norte, Lunda-Sul, Malanje, Moxico, Namibe, Uíge, and Zaire). The most populated province is Luanda which contains its capital city. Its largest province by area is Cuando Cubango located in the south-east at 204,000 km² followed closely by its northern neighbor Moxico at 201,000 km². Cabinda is an exclave that is separated from the rest of Angola by a narrow strip of territory that belongs to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. (Figure 1).</p>
<p><img src="img/AGO-NDC-1.png" style="width:5.44167in;height:2.85423in" /></p>
<p><em>Figure 1 – Angola’s geographic location (Adapted from<a href="http://www.naturalearthdata.com/">: Natural Earth Data</a></em> <em><a href="http://www.naturalearthdata.com/">a</a>nd Angolan Banking Association) </em></p>
<h2 id="climate-profile"> 2.3. Climate Profile </h2>
<p>Due to its geographical position, the Angolan territory presents an important climatic diversity, resulting from the combination of several factors such as its size, both in the north-south axis and in the coast-inland axis, the diversity of its topography and the effects of the Oceanic Current of Benguela (cold water). In this way, Angola has three major climatic zones. To the north the climate is characterized as hot and humid tropical and as we walk south, the climate becomes drier until it reaches a desert climate in the south-west, on the border with Namibia. The central plateau region has a temperate tropical climate.</p>
<p>There are two different seasons, a hot and humid season, in which rainfall is greater and another cooler and drier. In general, rainfall is higher in the north and inland, increasing with altitude. The Benguela current makes the coastal regions of Angola arid or semi-arid.</p>
<h3 id="future-climate-projections-trends-in-climate-variables">2.3.1. Future Climate Projections & Trends in climate variables </h3>
<p>The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has defined four different scenarios, called Representative Concentration Pathways (CPR), which differ in their ability to dissipate heat, ranging from the optimistic (2.6) to the pessimistic (8.5) scenario, through the intermediate scenarios 4.5 and 6.0. The difference between these two intermediate scenarios is when radiation stabilization occurs, respectively, before 2060 or in 2100[8].</p>
<p>Considering RCP4.5 scenario, future projections for Angola indicate an increase in the average annual temperature of 1.2 to 3.2ºC in 2060, with warmer and less cold days and nights, a generalized warming of surface waters on the northern and southern frontiers of the large marine ecosystem of the Benguela current, a variation in annual precipitation between -27% and + 20% in 2090, a greater probability of extreme events, such as heat waves, droughts and intense rains. The waterproofing of urban soil will increase the risk of flooding caused by high-intensity point rains [20].</p>
<p>The wind direction is not expected to change, as well as the direction of the sea currents. The pH of rainwater is expected to become more acidic, particularly in urban environments, more as a result of the increase in urban population and pollution of anthropogenic origin and not so much due to climate change. Also, the ocean acidification, the decrease in the pH of the Earth's oceans, is ongoing caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) from the atmosphere.</p>
<p>An increase in the frequency and intensity of flooding in the coastal zone of Angola is expected in all seasons, except in winter months June, July and August, interspersed with longer periods of drought.</p>
<p>The average of sea level is expected to rise, which will have direct consequences for the coastal zone of Angola, not only because that is where the country's population and infrastructure is concentrated, but also because it affects coastal biotopes, such as mangroves, increasing its salinity and making the survival of plant species impossible or altering the local flora.</p>
<p>Table 1 presents a summary of projections by climate variable.</p>
<blockquote>
<p><em>Table 1 - Summary of projections by climate variable [28] </em></p>
</blockquote>
<table>
<thead>
<tr class="header">
<th>Projection</th>
<th>Condition</th>
<th>Trend</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Air temperature</td>
<td>The average global temperature of the earth's surface is likely to exceed, by the end of the 21st century, 1.5 ° C with respect to trademarks registered in the 1850-1900 period.</td>
<td>Increase</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Sea water temperature</td>
<td>Positive changes in the temperature of the water in the cold Benguela current may affect outcrop pulses in the planktonic system as a whole. There is shading of effects and causes with the condition of the ichthyofauna and the activities of commercial overfishing in the area, as well as secular variations typical of marine dynamics.</td>
<td><p>Slight increase or stability in the</p>
<p>behaviour of the</p>
<p>phenomenon, but with uncertain effects</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Sea current temperature</td>
<td>A tropicalization of the equatorial heating zone of the cold Benguela current is expected by 2050. However, the heating of the Benguela current as well as new phenomena such as El Niño de Benguela respond to secular dynamics that cannot yet be statistically separated from each other. possible consequences of global warming.</td>
<td><blockquote>
<p>Stability in the behaviour of the</p>
</blockquote>
<p>phenomenon, but with sub-dimensioning of</p>
<blockquote>
<p>data to establish effects</p>
</blockquote>
<p>arising</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Precipitation</td>
<td><p>A decrease in average annual rainfall in the south and north of the country and an increase in the central coast is expected. In monthly terms, a decrease is expected in the driest months, extending the dry season to the months of April and October.</p>
<p>The maximum daily precipitation is expected to increase throughout the territory, this increase being more accentuated in the coastal zone. In the South, precipitation episodes will decrease by the end of the century but will be more intense in the future.</p></td>
<td>Increase</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Sea Level Rise (SLR)</td>
<td>Average sea level increase until the year 2100 between 0.26m and 0.77m considering the 67% confidence interval, between 17% and 84%. Already incorporating an increase in the global average temperature between 1.5 ° C and 2.0 ° C, the increase in sea level would be between 0.35m and 0.93m for the same confidence interval.</td>
<td><p>Slight increase or stability in the</p>
<p>behaviour of the</p>
<p>phenomenon, but with uncertain effects</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Wind direction</td>
<td>No drastic changes expected. Local phenomena produced by urban corridors may have a specific impact, more linked to the effects of urbanization than global warming.</td>
<td><p>Slight increase or stability in the</p>
<p>behaviour of the</p>
<p>phenomenon, but with uncertain effects</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Direction of sea currents</td>
<td>No drastic changes planned in terms of direction. Variability can be recorded in terms of vertical adjustments resulting from changes in temperature.</td>
<td><p>Slight increase or stability in the</p>
<p>behaviour of the</p>
<p>phenomenon, but with uncertain effects</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Projection</td>
<td>Condition</td>
<td>Trend</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><blockquote>
<p>Rainwater pH due to anthropic action</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>Expressively linked to the emission into the atmosphere of compounds derived from fossil fuels or possible mining of sulfur compounds in the open.</td>
<td>Increase</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Rainwater pH by natural effects</td>
<td>No drastic changes predicted by natural conditions. Anthropogenic action would be primarily responsible.</td>
<td><p>Slight increase or stability in the</p>
<p>behaviour of the</p>
<p>phenomenon, but with uncertain effects</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><p>Occurrence and intensity of extreme</p>
<p>events</p></td>
<td><p>Drought: They will tend to increase in frequency and intensity in the coastal area, but with significant consolidation in the central and western regions of the country.</p>
<p>Floods: Expected to increase the frequency of floods as well as their intensity, however interspersed with more consolidated periods of drought.</p>
<p>Heat waves: Expected to increase the frequency</p>
<p>Storm surges: Expected to increase the frequency</p>
<p>Wildfires: As global temperatures rise, wildfires are getting more frequent and intense.</p></td>
<td>Increase</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Ocean acidification</td>
<td>The ocean has been playing an important role in helping slow down global climate change by removing the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere. However, decades of ocean observations show that the CO2 absorbed by the ocean is changing the chemistry of seawater. When seawater absorbs carbon dioxide its acidity is increased.</td>
<td>Increase</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h3 id="climate-change-impacts">2.3.1. Climate Change Impacts </h3>
<p>Angola's vulnerability to climate change has been felt over time, with frequent episodes of extreme weather phenomena such as drought or floods, as well as coastal degradation and marked temperature variability in some areas of the country [19], with a special focus on the coast where most of the country's population is concentrated. Policy makers and other relevant stakeholders are increasingly aware of the tendency for them to get worse.</p>
<p>The growing signs of sensitive changes in biophysical systems, whether at regional and/or global scale, highlight the need to identify, analyze and assess the potential impacts of climate change in various socio-economic sectors, in order to plan a concerted response and mobilize adequate resources for its realization.</p>
<p>The main climate change impacts are presented below (Table 2).</p>
<p><em>Table 2 – Climate change impacts[28] </em></p>
<table>
<thead>
<tr class="header">
<th>Climate change impacts</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Sea level rise</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Increased frequency and intensity of extreme phenomena that cause coastal overtopping and erosion</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Change in sea currents circulation</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Rising water temperature and increased salinization</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Increased soil instability and landslide</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Increased susceptibility to desertification and soil erosion</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Increased frequency and intensity of extreme precipitation events</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Increased frequency and intensity of periods of drought and water scarcity</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Increased frequency and intensity of heat waves / heat island effect</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Increased frequency and intensity of rural fires</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Degradation of assimilation and purification of water courses</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Electricity supply instability</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Health risks and disease transmission</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Change / Loss of biodiversity</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Acidification of the sea and fresh water</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Intrusion of seawater in coastal areas</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Erosion of riverbeds and consequent sediment accumulation in estuaries</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h2 id="sociocultural-characteristics"> 2.4. Sociocultural Characteristics </h2>
<h5 id="population">Population </h5>
<p>According to the results of the Angolan General Population and Housing Census (RGPH 2014), the country’s total population was of 25.789.024 inhabitants (31.127.674 est. in 2020), unevenly distributed in the territory with 63% residing in urban areas and 37% in rural areas[10], and a strong concentration in the province of Luanda of around 6.9 million people.</p>
<p>The country has one of the lowest demographic densities in the world with only 20.6 inhabitants per km<sup>2</sup> and vast regions with no inhabitants or with less than 5 inhabitants per km<sup>2</sup>, however continues to have one of the highest fertility rates of Africa (registering 5.9 children per woman on average in 2010-2015)[19]. Despite the demographic density is globally low, it is extremely unequal: the urban areas, which are constantly expanding, are contrasted with large sparsely populated areas, particularly in the provinces located along to the coast of the country.</p>
<blockquote>
<p><img src="img/AGO-NDC-2.png" style="width:2.825in;height:3.11in" /></p>
</blockquote>
<p><em>Figure 2 - Population distribution map [48] </em></p>
<p>The population projections for the period 2014-2050, from the National Institute of Statistics, (based on birth, mortality and migration, using an average natural population growth rate of 3%) predicts that the total population will be more than double from just over 31.1 million in 2020 to 67.9 million in 2050, as presented in the table below (Table 3). Thus, this evolution of the population was considered in the projections of emissions until 2025 and 2030.</p>
<p>Contributing to the population growth tendency is the declining of mortality in the country in recent years as a reflection of the increase of life expectancy at birth, decrease of juvenile mortality rates and lower VIH prevalence in pregnant women (despite existence of some provincial variation)[15].</p>
<p><em>Table 3 – Estimated population projections for the 2015-2030 period [15] </em></p>
<table>
<thead>
<tr class="header">
<th></th>
<th></th>
<th>Population projections 2020-2050 (hab.)</th>
<th></th>
<th></th>
<th></th>
<th></th>
<th></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="odd">
<td>2015</td>
<td>26 681 590</td>
<td><blockquote>
<p>2020</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>31 127 674</td>
<td><blockquote>
<p>2025</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>36 170 961</td>
<td>2030</td>
<td>41 777 194</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>2016</td>
<td>27 503 526</td>
<td><blockquote>
<p>2021</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>32 097 671</td>
<td><blockquote>
<p>2026</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>37 243 484</td>
<td>2035</td>
<td>47.870.396</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>2017</td>
<td>28 359 634</td>
<td><blockquote>
<p>2022</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>33 086 278</td>
<td><blockquote>
<p>2027</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>38 340 130</td>
<td>2040</td>
<td>54.343.997</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>2018</td>
<td>29 250 009</td>
<td><blockquote>
<p>2023</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>34 094 077</td>
<td><blockquote>
<p>2028</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>39 461 732</td>
<td>2045</td>
<td>61.079.991</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>2019</td>
<td>30 175 553</td>
<td><blockquote>
<p>2024</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>35 121 734</td>
<td><blockquote>
<p>2029</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>40 608 969</td>
<td>2050</td>
<td>67.927.825</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p>According to the 2014 Census estimates, the life expectancy at birth of an Angolan is 60.3 years (57.6 years for men and 63 for women), although the country aims to belong to the Human Development Index high score countries (index higher than 0.70) by 2025.</p>
<p>Furthermore, the age structure of the population is very young (average age of 20.6 years), with 65% of the national total population under 24 and only 2% over 65 years old [19].</p>
<h5 id="education-and-literacy">Education and Literacy </h5>
<p>Angola is a multicultural and multilingual country. Portuguese, the only official language, is known by 80% of the population as the primary or secondary language. The six Bantu languages most widely spoken: Umbundu (23%), Kikongo (8.2%), Kimbundu (7.8%), Chokwe (6.5%), Ngangela (3.1%), Kwanyama (2.3%) [48].</p>
<p>In 2020, the Multidimensional Poverty Report of Angola [27] was developed, which considers 4 dimensions: i) Health; ii) Education, iii) Quality of life; iv) Employment - and sixteen indicators that express the different deprivations faced by people living in poverty and are, quite important, to capture the reality of the Country.</p>
<p>According to this report, the incidence rate of multidimensional poverty in the rural area (87.8%) is more than double the incidence rate in the urban area (35.0%).</p>
<p>Angola has, according to UNESCO, an adult literacy rate<a href="#fn1" class="footnote-ref" id="fnref1"><sup>1</sup></a> of 66.03% (a 1.38% decline from 2001). While the male literacy rate is 79.97%, for females is 53.41%, showing a big gap between the sexes.</p>
<p>In Angola, primary education is mandatory and free, which comprises 6 years of schooling (1st grade to 6th grade).</p>
<h5 id="government">Government </h5>
<p>Currently under the 2010 Constitution, the President in office is João Lourenço from the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola party (MPLA, in Portuguese), elected when the country held its second Presidential elections in 23<sup>rd</sup> August 2017 as part of a stable democratic transition.</p>
<p>The country is administratively divided into 18 provinces, each of which is headed by a governor appointed by the central government. Provinces are further divided into councils, communes, circles, neighborhoods, and villages.</p>
<p>The government type is a multiparty democracy with an Executive Presidency composed of the following State bodies: The President of the Republic, the National Assembly, the Government and the Courts<a href="#fn2" class="footnote-ref" id="fnref2"><sup>2</sup></a>. The actual Angolan government is composed by 21 Ministries.</p>
<h2 id="socioeconomic-characteristics"> 2.5. Socioeconomic Characteristics </h2>
<p>Angola has been an independent nation since 11<sup>th</sup> November 1975, following over 500 years of Portuguese colonization, and has maintained political stability since the end of the 27-year civil war in 2002. In 2010, a constitution established a presidential parliamentary system with the president no longer elected by direct popular vote but instead as the head of the party winning the most seats.</p>
<p>Angola has made substantial economic and political progress since the end of the war in 2002. However, the country continues to face massive development challenges, which include reducing its dependency on oil and diversifying the economy; rebuilding its infrastructure; and improving institutional capacity, governance, public financial management systems, human development indicators, and the living conditions of the population.</p>
<p>The World Bank classifies the world's economies into four income groups — high, upper-middle, lower-middle, and low. The Republic of Angola is a lower-middle income country and is transitioning to be classified as an upper-middle income country.</p>
<p>Faced with the degrading situation of its economy from the civil war, Angola joined the least developed country (LDC) category in 1994[1]. In 2015, the United Nations considered that, given its economic growth, it should no longer be considered as a least developed country [14]. Angola’s graduation from the LDC category will be effective in 2021[16]. For the Government of Angola, graduation is an important milestone for the country and its process should be used as a catalyst to accelerate the country’s transformation and development agenda [21]. This graduation process is expected to have economic implications.</p>
<p>Poverty reduction is one of the priority objectives of Angolan policy and the actions developed under the Poverty Reduction Strategy, the Integrated Municipal Program for Rural Development and Poverty Reduction and the National Development Plan of 2013-2017 and of 2018-2022, currently in force and under revision, allowed for a positive evolution of national indicators.</p>
<p>According to the National Development Plan of 2018-2022, the poverty rate in Angola fell from 60% to 36% from the beginning of this century to 2018, with almost half of Angola's population rising above the threshold of absolute poverty, with poverty being more prevalent in rural (58%) than in urban areas (19%)[14]. Although the country's wealth concentration indicator is evolving positively, empirical evidence suggests that inequality remains high [22]. In 2018, the GINI index<a href="#fn3" class="footnote-ref" id="fnref3"><sup>3</sup></a> for was 51,3%.</p>
<p>The Government has already in place a programme to support vulnerable families. The KWENDA program, which provides for the transfer of a fixed monthly income, in the amount of 8,500 kwanzas, to vulnerable families, as well as their inclusion in income-generating activities, came into force with its approval in the Diário da República.</p>
<p>Despite the positive outcomes, it is essential to strengthen and broaden the scope of policies and measures to reduce poverty, eliminate extreme poverty, promote access to equal opportunities and assure a fairer distribution of wealth and income. Some of the proposed measures in the PDN 2018-2022 are the implementation of a minimum income program for the population with greater economic and social difficulties and a sustainable and fair wage policy and tax system[19]. According to the 2014 Census, 42.2% of the country’s population was employed in the primary sector, 26.2% in the tertiary sector and only 6.1% in the secondary sector. In 2018, the unemployment rate was estimated at 28% and remained predominantly high among youth in urban areas (38%)[34]. Is it important to highlight the informal economy, which is constituted as a driving force of the organization of economic and social life, and not included in official numbers.</p>
<p>Second largest oil producer in Africa, Angola also has the third largest GDP in sub-Saharan Africa, after Nigeria and South Africa. After a long civil war, the country posted one of the highest economic growth rates in the world, driven by its oil wealth. Angola was then severely affected by the fall in oil prices and by the fall in world demand (notably from China). In 2019, it entered its fourth year of recession, which was extended by the drop in production in mature oil fields; indeed, GDP growth contracted by -1.5% in 2019[35].</p>
<p>Angola is expected to remain in recession in 2020 due to the recent plunge in oil prices and the global slowdown resulting from the impact of COVID-19. Oil sector growth will be highly affected due to the combined effect of supply and demand shocks. Non-oil sector growth is also projected to decline due to spillover effects from lower oil prices, reduced imported capital goods, tighter financing conditions, currency depreciation, and restrictions in the movements of goods and people. The COVID-19 pandemic and the global economic disruptions caused by it put at risk Angola’s achievements of macro-economic stabilization and transition to a more sustainable and inclusive growth model [35].</p>
<p>Despite having reached the top of the countries with the highest economic growth, changes in the international economic context following the global financial crisis and recession in 2012 affected funding and economic dynamics nationally, contributing to a significant economic slowdown over the 2013-2016 period. Angola, characterized by its oil industry dependence, suffered the drop-in oil production since 2014 and consequent price decline of this commodity, which resulted in reduced oil exports and affected tax revenues [30]. As a result, the real GDP growth rate decreased from 12.6% in the 2006-2010 period to 4.7% registered in 2011-2015, instigating government cuts in infrastructure spending by 55% between 2014 and 2017.</p>
<p>The reduction in the price of oil and subsequent divestment in the sector over the 2015-2017 period, has strongly impacted oil production nationally causing inflation rates to rise exponentially and fiscal sector indicators to deteriorate, resulting in a contraction of economic activity, public consumption expenditure and public investment, and increasing the public deficit leading to a four year long recession [30].</p>
<p>Since 2016 the real GDP growth rates have been negative (Figure 3). In light of this scenario, in 2016 entered into force a memorandum defining the government strategy to tackle this problem and increase state revenues based mainly on four pillars [17]:</p>
<ol type="1">
<li><p>oil substitution as the main source of revenue,</p></li>
<li><p>short-term export promotion,</p></li>
<li><p>program of public debt payment, and</p></li>
<li><p>a new non-oil dependent economic stability cycle.</p></li>
</ol>
<p>Hence, the government of Angola has been taking the necessary actions to help the country overcome the financial crisis, including the constraints in the oil sector, through measures of macroeconomic and financial stabilization, implementation of structural and financial reforms, improvement the business environment, and promoting non-oil sector growth, essential to reduce the high unemployment rate. Nonetheless, regardless of the efforts made in the non-oil sector in the past year - by the end of 2019, non-oil GDP growth estimate was of 0.6% due to the non-oil economy positive performance - the prediction is of continuing economic recession [30]. The government strategy also involves investing in infrastructure, reducing imports through economic diversification, developing skills and improving the business environment through reducing bureaucracy and easing credit access to companies [19]. Also, the National Development Plan 2018-2022 reinforces the strategic need for the country's development through investment in agriculture and industry.</p>
<p><img src="img/AGO-NDC-3.png" style="width:4.91667in;height:2.09333in" /></p>
<p><em>Figure 3 – Evolution of GDP growth rates between 2012 and 2019 [30] </em></p>
<p>In the 2013-2017 period, the average growth rate of the non-oil sector of 1.2% has been threefold the 0.4% registered for the oil sector [19].</p>
<p>The Government is strongly committed in developing the agricultural sector in order to make the country self-sufficient in basic food supplies, thus reducing imports and increasing exports. Subsistence agriculture remains the main source of income for the majority of the population representing about 47.8% of the total national labour force [19] and a GDP growth rate of 3.8% in 2019 in relation to the previous year [30]. Recently, the Government of Angola developed the Integrated Plan for the Acceleration of Agriculture and Artisanal Fisheries (PIAAPF), stating its plans to mitigate the socio-economic impacts of COVID-19 and dependence on oil, increasing increase national production by at least 15 to 25%, as well as investments in chains of value [33].</p>
<p>Between 2018 and 2022, projections show that the national economy is expected to have a real average growth rate of 3%, considering the stabilisation of oil production and the acceleration of the non-oil sector. In this scenario, the main drivers of growth are: agriculture with an average rate of 8.9%; fisheries with an average rate of 4.8%; manufacturing with an average rate of 5.9%; construction with an average rate of 3.8%; and services, including tourism with an average rate of 5.9% [19].</p>
<h3 id="characteristics-of-the-primary-sector">2.5.1. Characteristics of the Primary sector </h3>
<h5 id="oil-mineral-gas">Oil, Mineral & Gas </h5>
<p>Producing more than 800,000 barrels per day, Angola is Africa's second largest oil producer, a net producer of natural gas and also the third largest producer of diamonds in the continent, surpassed only by Botswana and the Democratic Republic of Congo. The Angolan economy - the third largest in sub-Saharan Africa - is dominated by the oil and gas industry, which accounts for about 50% of its GDP and is the primary source of revenue for the country (more than 80% of government revenue and 90% of Angola's exports come from oil activities) [47].</p>
<p>Besides oil, Angola has a wide range of valuable natural resources, particularly geological and mineral, including diamonds, iron ore, phosphate, copper, gold and manganese. Some of these resources are still unexplored in vast areas of the territory, reason why the government is implementing the National Geology Plan (PLANAGEO) to promote their exploitation and generate revenues.</p>
<p>The diamond, metallic mineral and other mineral extraction sectors are expected to perform the best in 2019, in consequence of the entry into operation of new diamond mines and of new quarries for the production of ornamental rocks, in addition to the continued production of other gold, iron ore and concentrated iron mines [19], with a growth rate of 17.9%, followed by Energy with 10.7% and the Manufacturing Industry 3.2% [30].</p>
<h5 id="agriculture-and-fisheries">Agriculture and Fisheries </h5>
<p>Agriculture</p>
<p>Despite its potential, the agricultural sector is underdeveloped and not very productive, contributing to 9% of GDP but employs 51% of the population. Only about a third of Angola's arable land is used for harvests; of those, only 100,000 out of 5 million arable hectares benefit from machinery and/or animal traction for sowing and harvesting.</p>
<p>Angola's agriculture mainly consists of subsistence farming. The key industrial crops are coffee and cotton. The Government recently heavily invested in coffee, sugarcane and ethanol productions, which should help to diversify agricultural revenues and exports [40].</p>
<p>Fisheries</p>
<p>The fishing sector is third in importance in the country after the oil and diamond industries. The Angolan coastline is 1.650 km long, with two diverging currents (Angola and Benguela currents) that create a strong upwelling system that supports a high primary production of marine resources. However, overfishing and changes in hydroclimatic conditions have strongly reduced the fisheries potential.[49]</p>
<p>The area from Lobito to the mouth of the Cunene River is by far the most productive of Angola’s fishing zones, with an abundance of horse mackerel, sardines, tunas and a range of demersal species. Angola’s northern fishing zone extends from Luanda to the mouth of the Congo River, and the central fishing zone stretches from Luanda to Benguela.</p>
<p>Artisanal fishing activities are scattered along the coast. Benguela and Luanda provinces have the greatest concentration of artisanal fishing areas. There is a real potential for increased artisanal fisheries and Institute for the Development of Artisanal Fisheries (IPA) has put great effort into developing the sector, particularly in terms of improving quality and tonnage of landings, as well assisting to improve the standard of living of the artisanal communities.[49]</p>
<h3 id="characteristics-of-the-secondary-sector">2.5.2. Characteristics of the Secondary Sector </h3>
<h5 id="energy">Energy </h5>
<p>Angola's current energy matrix, regarding electricity, is fundamentally based on two sources: water and thermal (from oil derivatives) and with regard to energy consumption in rural areas, in biomass (firewood and charcoal). New renewable energies have no expression and represent less than 1% of the energy consumed.</p>
<p>Angola is currently one of the countries in the world with the highest penetration of renewable energies in the electricity sector due to the weight of its hydroelectric plants. In 2013, more than 70% of the electricity produced in the country came from water.[13]</p>
<p>The electricity network of Angola is constituted by 3 main independent systems, based on hydrographic basins, namely, the North, Center and South Systems. The provincial headquarters not covered by these systems are supplied by Isolated Systems. The electricity access rate in Angola is 44% today and most rural areas lack access to electricity and other modern sources of energy.</p>
<p>Combustible firewood continues to be one of the most used forms of energy in rural Angola for heating and cooking. The uncontrolled use of this resource has created some problems of deforestation, although limited to the peripheries of small towns and villages in rural areas. Charcoal, which is mostly used in urban areas, is normally produced unsustainably, since the felled trees are not replaced.[26]</p>
<p>In 2016, the government developed the “Angola Energy 2025”, a document setting the objectives and targets for the electricity sector from 2018 to 2025.</p>
<p>According to this document, electricity supply is expected to increase, with new electricity projects under way and demand growth is expected to reach 7.2 GW by 2025, four times the current value, as a result of the electrification of 60% of the territory. This expansion will guarantee wider access of the population to electric energy and an increase in residential electricity consumption, thus contributing to national wealth growth, services improvement and industrial development [18]. In sum, infrastructure development and incentives to create supply will increase demand and electricity consumption which, in turn, is intrinsically associated with the expected economic development of the country.</p>
<h3 id="characteristics-of-the-tertiary-sector">2.5.1. Characteristics of the Tertiary Sector </h3>
<h5 id="transports">Transports </h5>
<p>Road transport</p>
<p>A country's economic and social development cannot be dissociated from the growth of national transport networks that accompany this growth. The growth forecasts for the country in the coming years, both in terms of population growth and the growth of its economy, have implications for emissions in the transport sector.</p>
<p>The roadway network covers about 75,000 km, 7,955 of which are paved. The main axis links the capital with the interior (East to West). At the same time there are a series of branches that connect the main roadways and allow communication with neighboring countries, specifically with Namibia, the Democratic Republic of Congo and the Republic of Congo.</p>
<p>Public passenger transport is underdeveloped in Angola, with the use of individual transport being primarily to the detriment of collective transport. “Candongueiros”, old vans of informal public transport used in Angola, are widely used in the country. At peak times, traffic in urban areas is very intense, and GHG emissions are especially aggravated because a large part of the country's car fleet is made up of old vehicles with old and inefficient engines.</p>
<p>Most of the freight in Angola is transported by road on trucks.</p>
<p>Rail transport</p>
<p>The rail system in Angola consists of around 2.750 km, divided in three main railways that were built eastwards from the coast during colonial times, linking Angola’s key Atlantic ports to the interior. Many of these lines were destroyed during the 27-year-long civil war, but a programme of rehabilitation has been ongoing since 2005.</p>
<p>The three railway lines are:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Caminhos de Ferro de Luanda (Luanda Railways - CFL): This links Luanda to Malanje in northern central Angola.</p></li>
<li><p>Caminhos de Ferro de Benguela (Benguela Railways - CFB): This links the Port of Lobito and Luau on the eastern border of the Democratic Republic of Congo (RDC).</p></li>
<li><p>Caminhos de Ferro Namibe (Moçâmedes Railways - CFM): This links the port of Namibe to the southern provinces of Cuando Cubango and Hull (town of Menongue) and on to the border of Namibia.</p></li>
</ul>
<blockquote>
<p><img src="img/AGO-NDC-4.png" style="width:2.98333in;height:3.03in" /></p>
</blockquote>
<p><em>Figure 4 - Rail Transport Angola [29]</em></p>
<p>Maritime transport</p>
<p>Regarding the maritime transport, Angola’s coastline stretches 1,600 kilometers and is served by numerous ports.</p>
<p>The largest ports are Luanda, Lobito, Cabinda, Namibe and Soyo (Figure 5). The port of Cabinda serves the Cabinda enclave region and is heavily tied to offshore petrol operations and handling, as is Soyo. The port of Namibe is the most important fishing port in the country, while Lobito is a historical port that once served as a direct gateway to DRC Katanga region’s copper exports (using the Benguela railway) [31].</p>
<p>Also, there is a fluvial network made up of large rivers with several falls, rapids, and lakes, some of which are navigable over dozens of kilometers and also appropriate for bathing and water sports. Some of those rivers are the Kwanza, Zaire, Kuando and Cunene. Angolan rivers offer excellent opportunities for transportation both for Tourism or a mix of Trade and Tourism.</p>
<blockquote>
<p><img src="img/AGO-NDC-5.png" alt="Current State of Maritime Transport in Angola" style="width:3.185in;height:2.86333in" /></p>
</blockquote>
<p><em>Figure 5 - Location of Angola's main ports [41] </em></p>
<p>This is Angola’s most important foreign trade route. The maritime infrastructure in general is in an acceptable condition, and this has allowed Angola to meet the very heavy traffic needs.</p>
<p>Air transport</p>
<p>Air transport in Angola is mostly aimed at passenger traffic, both international and national. There is a network of airports and airfields distributed over the whole country that allows immediate access to every point in the national territory as well as to other countries from the 4 de Fevereiro International Airport in the capital Luanda which has some of the heaviest air traffic in the whole of Africa. The national airline is TAAG and has routes to Africa, Europe and South America.</p>
<h5 id="services">Services </h5>
<p>The services sector (banking, telecommunications, tourism and hospitality) is also growing rapidly, accounting for 48,7% of GDP and employing 41% of the population.</p>
<p>Tourism is growing, although there is a severe shortage of hotels and other types of accommodation.</p>
<p>The construction sector is booming (9% of GDP), driven by a large reconstruction program launched by the government.</p>
<p><em>Table 4 - Breakdown of Economic Activity by Sector (2015)<sup>4</sup> </em></p>
<table>
<thead>
<tr class="header">
<th><p>Breakdown of Economic Activity by</p>
<p>Sector</p></th>
<th>Agriculture</th>
<th>Industry<sup>5</sup></th>
<th>Services</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="odd">
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Employment by Sector <em>(in % of Total Employment)</em></td>
<td>50,6</td>
<td>8,1</td>
<td>41,7</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Value Added <em>(in % of GDP)</em></td>
<td>8,6</td>
<td>47,9</td>
<td>43,2</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td>Value Added <em>(Annual % Change)</em></td>
<td>-,76</td>
<td>-3,6</td>
<td>0,3</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p><em>Because of rounding, the sum of the percentages may be smaller/greater than 100%. </em></p>
<ol start="4" type="1">
<li><p>World Bank latest data (updated October 2020)</p></li>
<li><p>The industry sector consists of mining and quarrying, manufacturing, construction, and public utilities (electricity, gas, and water),</p></li>
</ol>
<h1 id="ndc-revision-process">3. NDC REVISION PROCESS </h1>
<h2 id="justification-time-frame-of-this-ndc"> 3.1. Justification & Time Frame of this NDC </h2>
<p>Angola is reviewing its NDC following ratification of Paris Agreement in November 2020.</p>
<p>Article 4.10 of the Paris Agreement calls on the first session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Agreement (CMA1) to “consider common time frames” for nationally determined contributions (NDCs).</p>
<p>The common time frame is necessary to monitor and review the effectiveness of NDC implementation as well as to aggregate the global number of emission reduction.</p>
<p>Angola is setting the target to achieve a 14% reduction (unconditionally) by <span class="underline">2025.</span></p>
<h2 id="scope-and-coverage"> 3.2. Scope and coverage </h2>
<p>The NDC scope is fully aligned with the recent National Strategy for Climate Chance 2020-2035 (ENAC 2020-2035) and the coverage is nation-wide, and the gases covered include CO<sub>2</sub>, CH<sub>4</sub> and N2O gases.</p>
<p>The mitigation action of this NDC comprises 4 sectors, namely:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Energy</p></li>
<li><p>AFOLU</p></li>
<li><p>Industry Waste</p></li>
</ul>
<p>The adaptation action of this NDC comprises 6 sectors, namely:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Agriculture and Fisheries</p></li>
<li><p>Coastal Zone</p></li>
<li><p>Forest, Ecosystem and Biodiversity</p></li>
<li><p>Water resources</p></li>
<li><p>Human Health</p></li>
<li><p>Infra-structures</p></li>
</ul>
<h2 id="revision-process-and-ndc-enhancement"> 3.3. Revision process and NDC Enhancement </h2>
<p>The 2020 NDC reflects the feedback from stakeholders and is fully aligned with the development vision of the government. Angola adopted an all-inclusive process of engaging relevant stakeholders through bilateral consultations.</p>
<p>In reviewing the 2015 Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (iNDC), the government organized bilateral meetings, conducted during 2020-2021, in order to identify and discuss relevant measures to achieve the proposed target, responding to the main priorities of the country.</p>
<p>Due to the global pandemic COVID-19 the bilateral meetings were developed through virtual platform.</p>
<p>Guided discussions with relevant stakeholders focused on three elements:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Review of iNDC options: What is the current status of these projects? What is the planned timing? What are the implementation arrangements and needs?</p></li>
<li><p>Discussion of additional options: What other options could be applicable in Angola? What are the key challenges? What are the policy gaps and support needs?</p></li>
<li><p>Identifying data sources and gaps: What are the existing information sources? Where are the key data gaps required for detailed analysis?</p></li>
</ul>
<p>The Angolan NDC was enhanced by adding measures and actions aimed at strengthening implementation. Also, new information on the most recent National Inventory of CO<sub>2</sub>e emissions was added to the document.</p>
<h2 id="institutional-arrangements"> 3.4. Institutional arrangements </h2>
<p>The Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Environment of Angola (MCTA in Portuguese) was the entity responsible for the update of the Angolan NDC, with the support of UNDP Angola.</p>
<p>MCTA currently has 6 National Directorates, namely the (1) National Directorate of Culture and Arts; the (2) National Directorate of Traditional Power Communities and Institutions; the (3) National Directorate of Structuring and Tourism Development; the (4) National Directorate for Qualification of Infrastructure and Tourism Products; (5) National Directorate for the Environment and Climate Action; the (6) National Directorate for Prevention and Assessment of Environmental Impacts.</p>
<p>Under the (5) National Directorate for the Environment and Climate Action, MCTA has the task of formulating, conducting, executing and controlling the policy related to the environment in a perspective of protection, preservation and conservation of environmental quality, pollution control, conservation areas and enhancement of the natural heritage, as well as the preservation and rational use of natural resources.</p>
<p>The National Directorate for the Environment and Climate Action (DNAAC) is responsible for:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Conceive, propose and implement the national environmental policy and the National Environmental Management Program;</p></li>
<li><p>Guide, coordinate and supervise all the activity of the Ministry in accordance with the law;</p></li>
<li><p>Ensure the correct application of the technical and scientific development policy for the sector's human resources;</p></li>
<li><p>Guarantee the prosecution of laws and other legal instruments.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>Its executive services also include the Climate Change Office, responsible for the implementation of the National Climate Change Program (NCCP) and the integration of policies leading to sustainability, GHG emission reduction, offset programs and projects, and the National Directorate for Prevention and Assessment of Environmental Impacts responsible for ensuring the implementation of environmental policy in activities that are likely to cause significant harm to the environment.</p>
<p>In 2000, Angola created the Multisectoral Commission for the Environment, to deal with climate change issues under the UNFCCC. The Commission has the authority to establish sustainable development measures for various sectors, the implementation of strategies, policies, programs and actions related with environmental protection, as well as to convene agreements between different sectors with regard to environmental management programs.</p>
<p>Also, a National Commission on Biodiversity and Climate Change (CIBAC) was created in 2012 (Presidential Order No. 10/12 of February 1) with the responsibility to create the necessary conditions for the execution and implementation of the National Strategy for Climate Change and for creating a national investment plan for climate change, biodiversity, drought and desertification. The Commission is coordinated by the Ministerial Department responsible for the Environment and integrates several ministries. The Commission has the following duties:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Agree on the Initiatives and harmonize policies for the implementation of the national strategy on climate change and the strategy for the preservation of biodiversity;</p></li>
<li><p>Create the conditions for the execution and implementation of the national plan for climate change;</p></li>
<li><p>Create a national investment plan that integrates issues related to climate change, biodiversity, drought and desertification;</p></li>
<li><p>Create centres of excellence for research and systematic observation of the climate system.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>A successful implementation of this NDC requires a close coordination and collaboration between MCTA and all potential stakeholders including the private sector, civil society and public institutions.</p>
<h1 id="mitigation">4. MITIGATION </h1>
<h2 id="overview-1"> 4.1. Overview </h2>
<p>IPCC’s latest report (2014)<sup>6</sup> on the impact of global warming underlines the need for ambitious and immediate action to keep the Paris Agreement goals within reach, in particular the 1,5ºC temperature goal. The report warns that global mean surface temperature is likely to rise if the current trend on emissions continue.</p>
<p>Through this NDC, Angola presents its ambition and its commitment to contribute to the Paris Agreement objectives. Also, the country is committed to contribute towards achieving the objective of the Convention for the stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system, as set out in its Article 2.</p>
<p>Angola’s mitigation contribution takes the form of a reduction in GHG emissions relative to a business-as-usual (BAU) emissions baseline (2015) over the period 2015-2025.</p>
<p>The contribution comprises of two components:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Unconditional contribution: A reduction of 14% relative to BAU (2015) in the year 2025; equivalent to an estimated mitigation level of 15,4 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (tCO<sub>2</sub>e) in that year. This is an unconditional target, based on domestically supported and implemented mitigation measures and policies.</p></li>
<li><p>Conditional contribution: An additional reduction of 10% relative to BAU in the year 2025; equivalent to an estimated mitigation level of 11,1 million tCO<sub>2</sub>e e in that year. This represents an additional targeted contribution, based on the provision of international support and funding.</p></li>
</ul>
<p>The combined unconditional and conditional contribution is therefore a 24% reduction in GHG emissions compared to BAU scenario in 2025; this is equivalent to an estimated mitigation level of up to 26,5 million tCO<sub>2</sub>e in 2025.</p>
<h3 id="source-of-information">4.1.1. Source of information </h3>
<p>This NDC relies on relevant national and sectorial plans and strategies, namely:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>National Strategy for Climate Change 2020-2035</p></li>
<li><p>National Development Plan for 2018-2022</p></li>
<li><p>Angola Energia 2025 - Long-Term Vision for the Electricity Sector</p></li>
<li><p>Action Plan for the Energy and Water Sector 2013-2017</p></li>
<li><p>5<sup>th</sup> Assessment Report: Climate Change 2014</p></li>
<li><p>Atlas and National Strategy for New Renewable Energies</p></li>
<li><p>Strategic Plan for New Environmental Technologies</p></li>
<li><p>Strategic Plan for Urban Waste Management in Angola (PESGRU)</p></li>
<li><p>National Energy Security Policy and Strategy</p></li>
<li><p>Long-term development strategy for Angola (Angola 2025)</p></li>
</ul>
<p>For the GHG inventory, the following data sources were considered:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Consolidated reports of activities in the oil and gas sector</p></li>
</ul>
<h3 id="scope-and-coverage-1">4.1.2. Scope and Coverage </h3>
<p>Within the context of this NDC, Angola prioritizes the implementation of mitigation measures in the following main sectors:</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Energy</p></li>
<li><p>AFOLU</p></li>
<li><p>Industry</p></li>
<li><p>Waste</p></li>
</ul>
<h4 id="energy-1">Energy </h4>
<p>The energy sector is fundamental to the economic and social development of Angola, allowing to improve the quality and welfare standards of the population.</p>
<p>Renewable electricity generation is on the rise and expected to continue growing, due to private investment and also government strategies and orientation. Renewables like hydro, solar and wind power are perhaps the most widely recognized low-carbon technologies and are likely to be central to a decarbonized power system. One of the challenges of decarbonizing the power sector is sufficiently reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions while guaranteeing reliability, security, and affordability of energy.</p>
<p>Decarbonization is likely to hinge on increased electrification of other sectors. Therefore, the electric power sector may need to grow capacity or increase efficiency as it decarbonizes. This will occur while the sector also changes in other ways, including the development of increasingly complex networks of supply and demand, new demands for bidirectional flow of power, new business models for power generation and grid infrastructure development, and increasing digitization of power technology.</p>
<h5 id="Transport-1">Transport</h5>
<p>A country's economic and social development cannot be dissociated from the growth of national transport networks that accompany this growth. The growth forecasts for the country in the coming years, both in terms of population growth and the growth of its economy, have implications for emissions in the transport sector, resulting in a rise in global temperature and climate change.</p>
<h4 id="waste">Waste </h4>
<p>Waste is one of the most complex problems in modern society, with its growth, parallel to economic development, and the difficulties inherent in its management taking on a great political and social importance.</p>
<p>When waste is not properly disposed of in landfills but in landfills or uncontrolled landfills, it becomes a problem for public health and contributes to the pollution of surface and groundwater, making it unfit for consumption.</p>
<p>Industrial development, population growth and high growth rates in cities will continue leading to an increase of waste production in Angola. The Strategic Plan for the Management of Urban Waste (PESGRU) [7], approved in 2012, forms the basis for the definition of a strategy to solve the problem of urban waste management. The development of the waste sector allows not only to minimize environmental and public health impacts, improving the well-being of the population, but also to create valuable jobs and by-products, being a sector with a high economic potential if well managed. Additionally, waste management contributes effectively to mitigating GHG emissions. The use of methane generated in landfills for electricity production is an example of how waste management can have a double benefit: if, on the one hand, waste collection in urban areas contributes to the improvement of the health and hygiene conditions of the populations, on the other hand, the use of biogas generated in landfills contributes to the reduction of GHG emissions and to the security of energy supply, allowing the decentralization of electricity production to consumption areas.</p>
<h4 id="agriculture-forestry-and-other-land-use">Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use </h4>
<p>According to the “Guidelines for Defining a Strategy for Exiting the Crisis Derived from the Fall in Oil Prices on the International Market” [17], agriculture will be a key sector for reducing oil dependence and diversifying the economy. The country is endowed with conditions conducive to agricultural and forestry practice, with great production potential all over the territory. Currently, the sector is of significant importance in the country, not only in terms of GDP, 9.9% in 2015, but also in terms of the amount of labour force it employs.</p>
<p>One of the Government's objectives for the agricultural sector is to increase exports and reduce imports, with the aim of making the country self-sufficient regarding basic food products. Thus, and in response to this strategy, the agricultural sector is expected to grow significantly in the coming years, which is why it is important to promote this growth based on the promotion of sustainable practices in agriculture, which allow the sector to grow in a sustainable manner from an economic, environmental and energy point of view.</p>
<p>The capacity of terrestrial ecosystems to capture carbon plays a vital role in reducing the increase of the planet's average temperatures. Forest ecosystems can capture and sequester large quantities of CO2 through the accumulation of aerial and underground biomass, and the deposit of organic matter accumulated in ground.</p>
<p>Forests are of great socioeconomic importance due to the use of wood as a fuel, building materials, and the use of other resources for food and medicinal purposes. The forest is thus a valuable resource for the country, not only because of the importance it has for the Angolan economy, providing countless socioeconomic and environmental benefits, but also in its fundamental role as a carbon sink and regulator of the balance of ecosystems, and should be explored. in a sustainable way.</p>
<p>Forests have a good capacity to recover from natural climatic variations, but the loss of vegetation cover can have consequences in aggravating the impacts of climate change on ecosystems. In this sense, it is for the fundamental Government that some mitigation measures are established for the forest sector that contribute to preserve this country's source of wealth.[20]</p>
<h4 id="industry">Industry </h4>
<p>Considering the objective of diversifying the economy that the Angolan Government intends to promote in the coming years, both to respond to the oil crisis and to promote economic diversification in the context of its PMA graduation, the development of other industries in the country. The manufacturing industry, for instance, is expected to develop quite a lot short term. In this sense, the Government recognizes that the growth of economic activity must be sustained by the consumption of energy in a conscious and efficient way.</p>
<p>Direct GHG emissions from industry sector result from diverse processes, including the on-site combustion of fossil fuels for heat and power, non-energy use of fossil fuels, and chemical processes used in cement production, for example. In addition, industry generates indirect emissions from the centrally generated electricity it consumes. With the objective of promoting a more sustainable national industry from an energy and environmental point of view, the Government intends to encourage the replacement of diesel generators by natural gas cogeneration systems with the capacity to produce energy and heat, out of other measures.</p>
<p>From the point of view of security of energy supply, the production of electricity for selfconsumption from cogeneration systems guarantees the supply of electricity in a reliable manner, avoiding power outages and the instability of the Angolan electrical networks, avoiding any damage that these may cause the machinery, in addition to the advantage of using an endogenous and abundant fuel that is produced in the country. In addition, cogeneration systems allow the heat generated in the combustion of natural gas to be used in the industrial process itself, increasing the efficiency of energy use. From an environmental point of view, replacing the use of diesel with natural gas in industry is a measure that will contribute to the reduction of GHG emissions.[20]</p>
<h2 id="reference-point-national-ghg-inventory"> 4.2. Reference point: National GHG Inventory </h2>
<h3 id="methodology">4.2.1. Methodology </h3>
<p>The base year considered in this NDC is 2015, Angola’s latest GHG inventory data that was concluded in November 2020. Total greenhouse gas emissions in Angola is 99.992 ktCO<sub>2</sub>e, which represents 3.74 tCO<sub>2</sub>e per capita [38].</p>
<p>The GHG Inventory follows the 2006 IPCC Guidelines on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories and emissions include CO<sub>2</sub>, CH<sub>4</sub> and N<sub>2</sub>O and the Global Warming Potential (GWP) values used are those determined by the IPCC for the IPCC Second Assessment Report.</p>
<p>The most recent inventory considers the updated data in order to remain minimally consistent with the material of the 1<sup>st</sup> national inventory of Angola (2000 and 2005). The 1<sup>st</sup> inventory was prepared following the guidelines provided for in the IPCC Guide 1996. However, to apply the IPCC Guide 2006 it is necessary to carry out a contextualization, as the methods are substantially different. To conduct their inventories, countries use various methods to obtain data, including annual inventory, ten-year forest inventories, periodic surveys and remote sensing. Each of these data collection methods produces different types of information (for example, maps or tabs), at different reporting frequencies and with different attributes, which made it possible to calculate emissions for the sector.</p>
<p><em>Table 5 - Global Warming Potential </em></p>
<table>
<thead>
<tr class="header">
<th><blockquote>
<p>Gases</p>
</blockquote></th>
<th><blockquote>
<p>GWP</p>
</blockquote></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="odd">
<td><blockquote>
<p>CO<sub>2</sub></p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>1</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td><blockquote>
<p>CH<sub>4</sub></p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>21</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td><blockquote>
<p>N<sub>2</sub>O</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td>310</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p>GHG emissions were calculated using the activity data for each source and their respective emission factor, according to the following formula:</p>
<blockquote>
<p>Emissions = Activity Data x Emission Factor</p>
</blockquote>
<p>Since Angola does not have specific emission factors (own) until the present moment, for the elaboration of the GHG inventory, the emission factors by default of the 2006 IPCC Guides were used.</p>
<h4 id="energy-2">Energy </h4>
<p>For this sector, greenhouse gas emissions were inventoried from the adoption of the Bottom-up methodology (or sectoral approach), in which those emissions are calculated from the final energy consumption. The sectoral approach made it possible to identify where and how emissions occur.</p>
<p>CO2 emissions are dependent on the carbon content of fuels and can be estimated at a high level of aggregation and with reasonable precision. For non-CO2 gases, the IPCC default values were used. In addition to CO2, CH4 and N2O gases are estimated.</p>
<p>For the calculation of national greenhouse gas emissions in the energy sector, the Level - 1 calculation method was used. The survey of the information required for the calculation was carried out through consolidated reports of activities in the oil and gas. GHG emissions are calculated by knowing the activity data (fuel consumption or burning) for each source and its respective emission factor.</p>
<p><em>Table 6 - Energy GHG Sources </em></p>
<table>
<thead>
<tr class="header">
<th>Sector</th>
<th><blockquote>
<p>Category</p>
</blockquote></th>
<th><blockquote>
<p>Sub-category</p>
</blockquote></th>
<th><blockquote>
<p>Description</p>
</blockquote></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Energy</td>
<td><blockquote>
<p>Fuel use activities</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td><blockquote>
<p>Energy industries</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td><blockquote>
<p>Electricity generation</p>
</blockquote></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><blockquote>
<p>Transport</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td><blockquote>
<p>Civil aviation, rail, sea and road transport</p>
</blockquote></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td></td>
<td><blockquote>
<p>Fugitive fuel emissions</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td><blockquote>
<p>Oil and Natural</p>
<p>Gas</p>
<p>Residential</p>
<p>Oil and Natural</p>
<p>Gas</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td><blockquote>
<p>Natural gas</p>
</blockquote></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><blockquote>
<p>Oil</p>
</blockquote></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><blockquote>
<p>Flaring</p>
</blockquote></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td></td>
<td><blockquote>
<p>Venting (atmospheric discharge)</p>
</blockquote></td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td></td>
<td><blockquote>
<p>Emissions from the consumption of firewood and charcoal</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td><blockquote>
<p>Residential</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td><blockquote>
<p>Cooking</p>
</blockquote></td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td></td>
<td><blockquote>
<p>Emissions in the charcoal</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td><blockquote>
<p>Energy</p>
<p>Industries</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td><blockquote>
<p>Charcoal Production</p>
</blockquote></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h4 id="waste-1">Waste </h4>
<p>The Waste sector includes CH4, CO2 and N2O emissions resulting from the final disposal and incineration of solid waste and wastewater treatment in the Republic of Angola, based on the application of the 2006 Guidelines of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.</p>
<p>The calculations related to emissions from the disposal of solid urban waste were made, considering primarily national data and when not available, default data from the IPCC was used.</p>
<p>The parameters used for the calculation were: population, degradable organic carbon, gravimetric composition of the residues, rate of generation of residues per inhabitant, oxidation factor, methane recovery and IPCC default data.</p>
<p><em>Table 7 -Waste GHG Sources </em></p>
<table>
<thead>
<tr class="header">
<th><blockquote>
<p>Sector</p>
</blockquote></th>
<th>Category</th>
<th><blockquote>
<p>Sub-category</p>
</blockquote></th>
<th><blockquote>
<p>Description</p>
</blockquote></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="odd">
<td>Residues e effluents</td>
<td><blockquote>
<p>Disposal of solid waste</p>
</blockquote></td>
<td><blockquote>
<p>Waste disposal in unmanaged sites</p>
</blockquote></td>